"You get your information on the facts merely by looking at what others have to say about it."
- Niklas Luhmann, "Introduction to Systems Theory"
from Google AI:
This quote from Niklas Luhmann (often rendered within the context of "second-order observation") describes how modern society handles knowledge and reality, as discussed in his work Introduction to Systems Theory (specifically regarding observations and the "observation of observers").
Context of the Quote
Luhmann argues that modern society has shifted from directly observing reality to "second-order observation"—the observation of observers.
Descriptions of Descriptions: Instead of looking at "facts" directly, we look at reports, news, scientific papers, and opinions about those facts.
Advanced Mode of Perception: This is not seen as a failing, but as the "advanced mode" of perceiving the world in functional domains like academia, economy, art, and politics.
Examples: We know about global warming, economic trends, or current events not by direct observation, but by "looking at what others have to say about it".
Meaning in Systems Theory
Observation of Observers: In a complex, functionally differentiated society, we cannot experience everything. Instead, we observe how others (scientists, journalists, politicians) observe the world.
Structural Complexity: Because function systems (like law, science, or media) are "operatively closed," they only observe their own operations and create their own version of reality.
Reducing Complexity: We "get our information on the facts" by selecting from the massive amount of communication produced by these systems.
This approach highlights that in the modern world, knowledge is essentially social, mediated, and constructed, rather than a direct perception of objective reality.
"Where is the Life we have lost in living? Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?"T. S. Eliot
Snappily named Xi-cc-plus, Cern physicists spotted the particle in shower of debris that lit up Large Hadron Collider
Scientists at the Cern nuclear physics laboratory near Geneva have discovered a heavier version of the proton, the subatomic particle that sits at the heart of every known atom in the universe.
They spotted the particle in a shower of debris that lit up a detector at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), located deep beneath the ground at Cern, which smashes protons together at close to the speed of light. The collisions recreate in microcosm conditions that prevailed just after the big bang, with the energy converting to particles that spray in all directions.
The newfound particle, which is four times heavier than the regular proton, should help physicists refine their understanding of the strong nuclear force that glues together the innards of all atomic nuclei. The force is unusual because it behaves like a rubber band, getting stronger as the distance between subatomic particles increases.
Physicists working on the LHCb experiment found the heavy proton after the detector was upgraded to make it more powerful.
“This is just the first of many expected insights that can be gained with the new LHCb detector,” said Prof Tim Gershon at the University of Warwick, who takes over as the LHCb international lead in July. “The improved detection capability allowed us to find the particle after only one year, while we could not see it in a decade of data collected with the original LHCb.”
Atoms of hydrogen, the simplest and most abundant element in the observable universe, contain only a proton and an electron. Protons, along with neutrons in heavier atoms, consist of elementary subatomic particles called quarks. A proton contains two up quarks and one down quark, but there are heavier, unstable versions of quarks known as charm, strange, top and bottom.
In the heavy proton detected at Cern, both up quarks are replaced with charm quarks. The particle, snappily named Xi-cc-plus, was revealed by its signature decay into other particles. After popping into existence, it does not hang around: scientists suspect it survives for less than a millionth of a millionth of a second before breaking down.
“The more we learn about these particles, the more we can learn about the strong force, and that is the same strong force that binds our protons and neutrons together,” said Prof Chris Parkes, a physicist at the University of Manchester.
The discovery comes as UK Research and Innovation(UKRI), the nation’s science funder, faces fierce criticism for its plans to pull £50m funding for the LHCb’s final upgrade in the 2030s. The revamp would ensure the detector made the most of a major transformation to the LHC that could substantially improve its discovery potential.
UK scientists working in particle physics, astronomy and nuclear physics have been told their grants will be slashed following cost overruns at major science facilities. Projects have also been hit, including the next LHCb upgrade and an electron-ion collider under development with researchers in the US.
Last week, Chi Onwurah, chair of the Commons science committee, sent a scathing letter to Prof Ian Chapman, chief executive of the UKRI, and Patrick Vallance, the science minister, calling the cuts “wholly unacceptable” and “a failure” by UKRI, the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology.
The letter demands “swift and decisive action” and asks whether the decision on the LHCb upgrade is final.
“It is so important that we can overcome the problems caused by the UKRI decision to deprioritise the funding for this project,” Gershon said. “No other experiment either running or planned will be able to do this physics.”
4:43 What causes our very first heartbeat?6:36 Noble’s 1958 research on the first heart model8:40 On self-excitation in cells (and what “self” means)9:24 The central dogma in biology11:17 Schrödinger’s view of life as a crystal13:43 To what degree DNA replicates like a crystal15:16 The amazing error correction in our genome16:59 How enzymes know when they encounter an error19:19 “Genes look like a code of life…”22:05 The merits and limitations of the Human Genome Project23:39 Can we really say “the cell wants” something?24:51 Understanding the scales and extraordinary mechanisms in a cell27:18 What we do and don't understand29:16 On Michael Levin’s work31:23 On cancer
35:41 Neo-Darwinism vs true Darwinism38:19 Something must have sped evolution up41:22 The cell controls the genome44:19 On the metaphysics of chemistry leading to life46:42 Biological relativity51:08 The universe as a self-excited circuit52:18 On Richard Dawkins54:27 On the difference between causation and association56:48 The limitations on the predictive power of genomics58:46 The false hopes around the Human Genome Project1:00:20 The central dogma in biology has the wrong metaphysics1:07:03 Noble on Spinoza1:11:08 How dualistic thinking still limits us1:13:40 On the nature of the self1:17:06 How life lives on the boundary between order and chaos1:18:32 How errors become solutions1:19:51 A love story between a human and an AI1:23:58 On quantum biology1:26:27 On the importance of humility in science1:28:16 How we crave meaning (and reductionist science has deprived us of it)1:29:07 Denis Noble singing troubadour poetry1:30:27 Science must lay down its weapons1:32:18 What dancing to the tune of life means on a personal level
Causation and Association/Correlation Multiplicities = Intelligence (@ 52:00-56.48)? Why when one approach fails multiple others react and attempt to compensate for the failed mechanism? Mutliple "agents" applying (at a multiplicity of biological levels) a "use it or lose it" philosophy?
0:00 - Introduction0:44 - Biological intelligence9:17 - Living vs non-living organisms14:30 - Origin of life18:15 - The search for alien life (on Earth)51:19 - Creating life in the lab - Xenobots and Anthrobots1:04:21 - Memories and ideas are living organisms1:18:02 - Reality is an illusion: The brain is an interface to a hidden reality2:03:48 - Unexpected intelligence of sorting algorithms2:29:26 - Can aging be reversed?2:33:17 - Mind uploading2:51:57 - Alien intelligence3:06:52 - Advice for young people
The Lamb shift is a small energy difference between the 2 S1/2 and 2 P1/2 states of hydrogen, not predicted by the Dirac equation. It arises from the electron's interaction with virtual photon vacuum fluctuations, forcing a tiny, rapid oscillation of the electron's position. Renormalization of the electron's mass, essential in Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), allows the divergence to be removed, yielding a finite value for the shift. This same vacuum interaction similarly contributes to the electron's anomalous magnetic moment.Key Aspects of the Lamb Shift and QED:Virtual Photons & Vacuum Fluctuations: The Lamb shift is physically understood as the interaction between an atomic electron and virtual photons that are constantly emitted and reabsorbed from the quantum vacuum. These interactions create a "buffeting" effect (a rapid, small-scale random motion) of the electron, often described by a change in its effective Coulomb potential felt by the nucleus.Renormalization: Early calculations of the interaction showed divergent results, which were resolved via renormalization. Hans Bethe calculated the shift in 1947 by subtracting the infinite, unobservable self-energy of a free electron (renormalizing the mass) from the self-energy of the bound electron, resulting in a finite and measurable shift of approximately 1057 MHz, matching the experiment of Willis Lamb.Electron Magnetic Moment: Similar to the Lamb shift, the anomalous magnetic moment (or g-factor anomaly, [(g-2)/2] of the electron arises from QED radiative corrections—primarily the exchange of virtual photons between the electron and itself or with an external magnetic field.The Shift Details: The Lamb shift lifts the degeneracy between states with the same J (total angular momentum) but different I (orbital angular momentum), such as the 2 S1/2 and 2 P1/2 states, where the 2 S1/2 is slightly higher in energy (about 4.35 x 10-6 eV).
Retardation cancellation in gravity refers to the relativistic phenomenon where the delay in gravitational interaction (due to gravity traveling at the speed of light) is nearly perfectly cancelled out by velocity-dependent terms in general relativity. This cancellation causes gravitational forces to point toward a body's current, "instantaneous" position rather than its delayed (retarded) position, thus preventing orbital instability that would otherwise occur.Core Concepts of Retardation CancellationThe Problem of Retardation: If gravity travels at the speed of light (c), Earth should technically feel the Sun's gravity from 8 minutes ago (its "retarded" position). If this were the only effect, the resulting torque would cause Earth to spiral into the Sun in months, which does not happen.The Cancellation Mechanism: According to general relativity, the retardation effect is canceled by velocity-dependent terms that act as a form of correction. This is a fundamental difference between gravity and electromagnetism.Why It Matters (Stability): This cancellation ensures that orbits remain stable because the gravitational field appears to act instantly, even though it actually moves at light speed.Role of Velocity and Acceleration: For non-accelerating (or slowly accelerating) objects, the retardation effect on gravity is practically non-existent. However, for systems that radiate energy via gravitational waves, this cancellation is not complete.Alternative Explanations (MOND): Some theories suggest that in very low acceleration environments (like the outskirts of galaxies), these retardation corrections are related to Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and can account for effects usually attributed to dark matter.Essentially, retardation cancellation ensures that General Relativity works with observation: gravity travels at c, but behaves as if it travels instantaneously, thus maintaining stable orbital motions.
---
Gravitational fields, created by massive objects, exist as 3D structures extending through space, influencing other masses via attraction. These fields, described by general relativity as spacetime curvature, act as a continuous, energetic medium bridging objects rather than merely empty space, forming a structured, invisible "web" that directs motion.Key aspects of this gravitational "structure" include:Three-Dimensional Structure: Gravitational fields are not just lines on paper, but continuous three-dimensional influences filling the space surrounding and between massive objects.Structure of Space-Time: General relativity describes these fields as the actual curvature or warping of space-time, which can be perceived as a, sometimes, rigid or fixed structure.Energy Density: These fields, especially in the context of GR, are not "empty" space but contain non-zero, measurable energy that determines the motion of objects within it.Field Lines as Visual Aid: While not physical wires, field lines are used to visualize the direction and intensity of this structure, pointing towards the center of massive bodies.
Force Propagation: The field acts as an invisible force field (or "cosmic field"), allowing objects to influence each other without touching.
A gravitational field acts as an invisible, static structure that surrounds any massive object, with its intensity and direction determining how other objects move near it. While classical mechanics often treats this as a force field pointing towards the center of mass, modern physics describes this "structure" as the curvature of spacetime itself.Key aspects of this gravitational structure include:Static Nature: The field is "static" because it does not move relative to the object creating it (e.g., Earth's gravitational field stays with the Earth)."Rigid" Characteristics: The field is often depicted as a "potential energy landscape" or "well" that stays fixed around the massive object.Structure of Space: Einstein's general relativity explains that this field is not a rigid substance holding objects, but rather a warping of space-time geometry, where objects follow straight-line paths (geodesics) that appear curved because the space itself is curved.Attractive Force: Within this field, any mass (or energy) experiences a force pulling it toward the source of the field, with strength inversely proportional to the square of the distance.Analogy as a "Rigid Structure"This idea is commonly visualized as a "frictionless ski hill" or a "funnel" in space around a massive object, which directs the motion of nearby objects. For spherical objects like planets, this structure is generally uniform and acts like a rigid "nesting set of shells" extending through space.
The de Sitter effect (or geodetic precession) is a general relativity prediction where an orbiting gyroscope's axis precesses due to the curvature of spacetime caused by a central mass, such as Earth. Confirmed by Gravity Probe B at 6.6 arcseconds per year, it highlights how spacetime geometry dictates motion.Key Aspects of the De Sitter Effect:Origin: Predicted by Willem de Sitter in 1916 to correct Earth-Moon orbital motion, it describes how a spinning object in a curved space does not return to its initial orientation after a full orbit.Gravity Probe B (2004): This mission verified the effect by tracking gyroscopes in Earth's orbit, confirming the precise misalignment caused by the Earth bending spacetime.Mechanism: It is purely a consequence of spacetime curvature (geodetic effect) and is distinct from frame-dragging (Lense-Thirring effect), which is caused by the rotation of the mass itself.Modern Context: Often discussed alongside "de Sitter space"—an expanding, empty universe with a constant positive cosmological constant used to model early universe inflation.Difference from "De Sitter Space" and "Gravity"
While the de Sitter effect refers to this specific gyroscopic precession, de Sitter gravity often refers to a theoretical framework (or a form of "toy model" in 1 + 1 dimensions) where gravity acts within a de Sitter universe, often related to cosmological studies of dark energy.
---
The statement above is ✅ True, but it requires a specific physical understanding of how gravity "moves."In the framework of General Relativity, a gravitational field is not a separate entity that exists on top of space; rather, it is the curvature of spacetime itself [14, 31, 32].Explanation
- Spacetime Curvature: Mass and energy tell spacetime how to curve [8, 32]. As an object moves through space, the source of that curvature moves with it, effectively "dragging" the distortion of spacetime along its path [21, 24].
- Speed of Gravity: Changes in a gravitational field (such as those caused by a moving mass) do not happen instantaneously throughout the universe. They propagate at the speed of light (
) [37].- Retarded Potential: Because gravity travels at a finite speed, an observer at a distance experiences the gravitational field of a moving object as it was at a slightly earlier time (the "light-travel time" between the object and the observer) [37].
- Gravomagnetism (Frame-Dragging): For massive objects that are rotating or moving at high speeds, they don't just "drag" their static field; they actually "twist" the surrounding spacetime, a phenomenon known as frame-dragging or the Lense-Thirring effect [21].
Key DistinctionWhile the field "travels" with the object, it is more accurate to say that the source of the curvature is moving, and the surrounding spacetime continuously re-adjusts its shape at the speed of light to reflect the object's new position [37].
"Postcolonialism is the invention of rich Indian guys who wanted to make a good career in the West by playing on the guilt of white liberals,"
Homo sacer (Latin for "the sacred" or "accursed man") is a figure from Roman law defining someone excluded from religious and legal protections, who can be killed by anyone without committing homicide but cannot be ritually sacrificed. This "bare life" exists outside law but is included through exclusion.
Key details regarding Homo Sacer:
Origin: The concept originates from ancient Roman law, representing an outlawed person stripped of civil rights.
"Bare Life". In modern philosophy, particularly in Giorgio Agamben’s "Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life", it represents human life reduced to mere existence—excluded from political participation and reduced to basic, biological life.
Sovereign Power: Agamben argues that sovereign power creates homo sacer by declaring a "state of exception," where normal law is suspended.
Modern Examples: The concept is applied to individuals in zones of indistinction, such as refugees, stateless persons, or detainees in concentration camps, who are excluded from legal rights.
Significance: It highlights the ability of the state to exclude certain people from legal protections, making them vulnerable to violence.
Søren Kierkegaard famously wrote, “Anxiety is the dizziness of freedom” in his 1844 work, The Concept of Anxiety. He meant that realizing one's own absolute freedom and infinite possibilities to choose—like looking down into a deep abyss—creates a overwhelming, dizzying sense of anxiety.
Key Aspects of the Quote:
Context:
- The Metaphor: Kierkegaard compares the feeling of anxiety to looking down into a precipice (or abyss).
- The Cause: It arises from the realization that you have the freedom to choose, and that you are responsible for your actions.
- The Result: It is a "sweet anxiety" or "dizzying effect" that occurs when the spirit contemplates its own potential.
- The Meaning: It signifies that anxiety is not just fear of something external, but a necessary, internal part of being human that comes with the potential to grow.
This concept is a cornerstone of existentialist thought, emphasizing that we are always at a crossroads with endless possibilities. As noted in The Marginalian, this anxiety is linked to creativity, as it compels us to make choices and define our own existence.An excerpt on Kierkegaard's notion of anxiety...
Firstly, although it is certainly related to fear in various ways, anxiety must be clearly distinguished from fear. In The Concept of Anxiety Kierkegaard argues that fear is a person’s concern about what threatens him from outside – from a myriad threats to life, limb, livelihood and happiness over which he has limited control. Anxiety, on the other hand, is a person’s concern about what, so to speak, threatens him from inside, from within his own consciousness. An anxious person is concerned about what he might choose to do given his freedom to choose. He is troubled by his own freedom and spontaneity; by the awareness that there is nothing whatsoever preventing him from choosing to perform a foolish, destructive or disreputable act at any moment, other than his choice not to perform it. “Hence,” says Kierkegaard, “anxiety is the dizziness of freedom” (p.61). To be anxious is to be bewildered by one’s own freedom; to be worried and disturbed by the realisation that one always has many options in any situation and must continually choose one option or another. Not choosing is not an option because choosing not to choose, or choosing to do nothing, is still a choice.
This dizziness of freedom is most clearly manifested in the sensation of vertigo. Kierkegaard takes the example of a man standing on the edge of a tall building or cliff. The man fears he might fall over the edge, that the safety rail or the ground might give way, that someone might push him off, and so on. Greater than his fear of falling, however, is his anxiety that he is free to jump if he decides to – that his not jumping is an ongoing choice which he might abandon at any moment in favour of jumping. He experiences this anxiety, the threat of his own freedom, as vertigo, an overwhelming giddiness. The drop obsesses him, the void seems to beckon him down; but really it is his own freedom that beckons to him – the very fact that he can always choose to go down the quick way. Vertigo is dread of this alarming and persistent possibility, and all our alarming possibilities produce in us a psychological state akin to vertigo. That is to say, what a person overlooking a sheer drop dreads is not the possible inadequacy of the physical guard rail, but that he ultimately lacks a psychological guard rail to prevent him from choosing to climb over and plunge to his death. If it appears on the face of it that his dread is of the void itself, this is because his vivid awareness of the void immediately forces him to confront his own possibilities, his own dreadful existential freedom. The void is the occasion of his dread, but not its source.
I did but prompt the age to quit their clogs
By the known rules of ancient liberty,
When straight a barbarous noise environs me
Of owls and cuckoos, asses, apes and dogs:
As when those hinds that were transform'd to frogs
Rail'd at Latona's twin-born progeny
Which after held the sun and moon in fee.
But this is got by casting pearl to hogs,
That bawl for freedom in their senseless mood,
And still revolt when truth would set them free.
Licence they mean when they cry liberty;
For who loves that, must first be wise and good.
But from that mark how far they rove we see,
For all this waste of wealth and loss of blood.
